Biotechnology Glossary: Investors Resource for Terms and Descriptions needed for Biotechnology Investing

For biotechnology investing questions please contact *DPEC Partners.

* InvestBio does not offer any securities. InvestBio’s biotechnology investment products and services can only be obtained through DPEC Capital, Inc. 

• A
  • Acclimatization
  •  Adaptation of an organism to a new environment.
  • Action letter
  •  An official communication from the FDA to an NDA or PLA sponsor that informs of a decision by the agency. An approval letter allows commercial marketing of the product.
  • Active immunity
  •  A type of acquired immunity whereby resistance to a disease is built up by either having the disease or receiving a vaccine to it.
  • Adjuvant
  •  Insoluble material that increases the formation and persistence of antibodies when injected with an antigen.
  • Aerobic
  •  Needing oxygen for growth.
  • Allelle
  •  Any of several alternative forms of a gene.
  • Allogenic
  •  Of the same species, but with a different genotype.
  • Alzheimer?s disease
  •  A disease characterized by, among other things, progressive loss of memory. The development of Alzheimer?s disease is thought to be associated, in part, with possessing certain alleles of the gene that encodes apolipoprotein E.
  • Amino acids
  •  Building blocks of proteins. There are 20 common amino acids: alanine, arginine, aspargine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine and valine.
  • Amplification
  •  The process of increasing the number of copies of a particular gene or chromosomal sequence.
  • Anaerobic
  •  Growing in the absence of oxygen.
  • Antibiotic
  •  Chemical substance formed as a metabolic byproduct in bacteria or fungi and used to treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics can be produced naturally, using microorganisms, or synthetically.
  • Antibody
  •  Protein produced by humans and higher animals in response to the presence of a specific antigen
  • Anticodon
  •  Triplet of nucleotide bases (codon) in transfer RNA that pairs with (is complementary to) a triplet in messenger RNA. For example, if the codon is UCG, the anticodon is AGC. See also Base; Base pair; Complementarity.
  • Antigen
  •  A substance that, when introduced into the body, induces an immune response by a specific antibody.
  • Antigenic determinant
  •  See Hapten.
  • Antihemophilic factors
  •  A family of whole-blood proteins that initiate blood clotting. Some of these proteins, such as factor VIII, can be used to treat hemophilia. See also Factor VIII; Kidney plasminogen activator.
  • Antisense
  •  A piece of DNA producing a mirror image (?antisense?) messenger RNA that is opposite in sequence to one directing protein synthesis. Antisense technology is used to selectively turn off production of certain proteins
  • Antiserum
  •  Blood serum containing specific antibodies against an antigen. Antisera are used to confer passive immunity to many diseases.
  • Apolipoprotein E (Apo E)
  •  Cerrtain alleles of the gene that encodes the protein apolipoprotein-E have been associated with the development of heart disease and Alzheimer?s disease.
  • Assay
  •  Technique for measuring a biological response.
  • Attenuated
  •  Weakened; with reference to vaccines, made from pathogenic organisms that have been treated so as to render them avirulent.
  • Autoimmune disease
  •  A disease in which the body produces antibodies against its own tissues.
  • Autoimmunity
  •  A condition in which the body mounts an immune response against one of its own organs or tissues.
  • Autosome
  •  Any chromosome other than a sex chromosome.
  • Avirulent
  •  Unable to cause disease.
• B
  • B lymphocytes (B-cells)
  •  A class of lymphocytes, released from the bone marrow, which produce antibodies.
  • Bacillus subtilis
  •  A bacterium commonly used as a host in recombinant DNA experiments. Important because of its ability to secrete proteins.
  • Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
  •  Naturally occurring soil bacterium that generates a protein toxic to a variety of caterpillars, but harmless to people and animals.
  • Bacteriophage
  •  Virus that lives in and kills bacteria. Also called phage.
  • Bacterium
  •  Any of a large group of microscopic organisms with a very simple cell structure. Some manufacture their own food, some live as parasites on other organisms, and some live on decaying matter.
  • Base
  •  On the DNA molecule, one of the four chemical units that, according to their order and pairing, represent the different amino acids. The four bases are: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) substitutes for thymine.
  • Base pair
  •  Two nucleotide bases on different strands of the nucleic acid molecule that bond together. The bases can pair in only one way: adenine with thymine (DNA) or uracil (RNA), and guanine with cytosine.
  • Bioassay
  •  Determination of the effectiveness of a compound by measuring its effect on animals, tissues or organisms in comparison with a standard preparation.
  • Bioaugmentation
  •  Increasing the activity of bacteria that break down pollutants by adding more of their kind. A technique used in bioremediation.
  • Biocatalyst
  •  In bioprocessing, an enzyme that activates or speeds up a biochemical reaction.
  • Biochemical
  •  The product of a chemical reaction in a living organism.
  • Biochip
  •  An electronic device that uses organic molecules to form a semiconductor.
  • Bioconversion
  •  Chemical restructuring of raw materials by using a biocatalyst.
  • Biodegradable
  •  Capable of being reduced to water and carbon dioxide by the action of microorganisms.
  • Bioenrichment
  •  Another bioremediation strategy that involves adding nutrients or oxygen, thereby bolstering the activity of microbes as they break down pollutants.
  • Bioinformatics
  •  The science of informatics as applied to biological research. Informatics is the management and analysis of data using advanced computing techniques. Bioinformatics is particularly important as an adjunct to genomics research, because of the large amount of complex data this research generates.
  • Biolistic device
  •  A device that shoots microscopic DNA-coated particles into target cells.
  • Biologic (Biologic response modifier)
  •  A substance that alters the growth or functioning of a cell. Includes hormones and compounds that affect the nervous and immune systems.
  • Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
  •  The amount of oxygen used for growth by organisms in water that contains organic matter.
  • Biomass
  •  The totality of biological matter in a given area. As commonly used in biotechnology, refers to the use of cellulose, a renewable resource, for the production of chemicals that can be used to generate energy or as alternative feedstocks for the chemical industry to reduce dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels.
  • Biomaterials
  •  Biological molecules, such as proteins and complex sugars, used to make medical devices, including structural elements used in reconstructive surgery.
  • Bioprocess
  •  A process in which living cells, or components thereof, are used to produce a desired product. Bioreactor Vessel used for bioprocessing.
  • Bioremediation
  •  The use of microorganisms to remedy environmental problems, rendering hazardous wastes nonhazardous.
  • Biosynthesis
  •  Production of a chemical by a living organism.
  • Biotransformation
  •  The use of enzymes in chemical synthesis to produce chemical compounds of a desired stereo-chemistry.
  • Blastocyst (Blastula)
  •  The ball of undifferentiated cells from which a prospective embryo develops.
  • Bovine somatotropin (BST)
  •  (also called bovine growth hormone) A hormone secreted by the bovine pituitary gland. It is used to increase milk production by improving the feed efficiency in dairy cattle milk.
  • BRCA1 and BRCA2
  •  (breast cancer) Two genes that normally help to restrain cell growth, but which can contain certain genetic mutations associated with the development of breast and ovarian cancer. Note, however, that inherited BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations are thought to account for less than 10 percent of all breast and ovarian cancers. Recent evidence suggests that somatic cell genetic mutations (i.e., noninherited genetic mutations) in these two genes may also play a role in the development of cancer.
• C
  • Callus
  •  A cluster of undifferentiated plant cells that can, in some species, be induced to form the whole plant.
  • Carcinogen
  •  Cancer-causing agent.
  • Catalyst
  •  An agent (such as an enzyme or a metallic complex) that facilitates a reaction but is not itself changed during the reaction.
  • Cell
  •  The smallest structural unit of a living organism that is able to grow and reproduce independently.
  • Cell culture
  •  Growth of cells under laboratory conditions.
  • Cell fusion
  •  See Fusion
  • Cell line
  •  Cells that grow and replicate continuously outside the living organism.
  • Cell-mediated immunity
  •  Acquired immunity in which T lymphocytes play a predominant role. Development of the thymus in early life is critical to the proper development and functioning of cell-mediatedimmunity.
  • Chimera
  •  The individual (animal or lower organism) produced by grafting an embryonic part of one individual onto an embryo of either the same or a different species.
  • Chromosomes
  •  Threadlike components in the cell that contain DNA and proteins. Genes are carried on the chromosomes.
  • Clinical studies
  •  Human studies that are designed to measure the safety and efficacy of a new drug or biologic. Clinical studies routinely involve the use of a placebo group that is given an inactive substance that looks like the test product.
  • Clone
  •  A term that is applied to genes, cells or entire organisms that are derived from?and are genetically identical to?a single common ancestor gene, cell or organism, respectively. Cloning of genes and cells to create many copies in the laboratory is a common procedure essential for biomedical research. Note that several processes commonly described as cell ?cloning? give rise to cells that are almost but not completely genetically identical to the ancestor cell. Cloning of organisms from embryonic cells occurs naturally in nature (e.g., identical twins). Researchers have achieved laboratory cloning using genetic material from adult animals of a number of species including mice, pigs and sheep.
  • Codon
  •  A sequence of three nucleotide bases that specifies an amino acid or represents a signal to stop or start a function.
  • Co-enzyme
  •  An organic compound that is necessary for the functioning of an enzyme. Co-enzymes are smaller than the enzymes themselves and sometimes separable from them.
  • Co-factor
  •  A nonprotein substance required for certain enzymes to function. Co-factors can be co-enzymes or metallic icons.
  • Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
  •  A group of lymphokines that induce the maturation and proliferation of white blood cells from the primitive cell types present in bone marrow.
  • Co-metabolism
  •  A microbe oxidizing not only its main energy source but also another organic compound.
  • Complementarity
  •  The relationship of the nucleotide bases on two different strands of DNA or RNA. When the bases are paired properly (adenine with thymine [DNA] or uracil [RNA]; guanine with cytosine), the strands are complementary.
  • Complementary DNA (cDNA)
  •  DNA synthesized from a messenger RNA rather than from a DNA template.This type of DNA is used for cloning or as a DNA probe for locating specific genes in DNA hybridization studies.
  • Conjugation
  •  Sexual reproduction of bacterial cells in which there is a one-way exchange of genetic material between the cells in contact.
  • Crossing over
  •  Exchange of genes between two paired chromosomes.
  • Cross-licensing
  •  Legal, contractual procedure in which two or more firms with competing, similar technologies and possible conflicting patent claims strike a deal to reduce the need for legal actions to clarify who is to profit from applications of the technology.
  • Culture
  •  As a noun, cultivation of living organisms in prepared medium; as a verb, to grow in prepared medium.
  • Culture medium
  •  Any nutrient system for the artificial cultivation of bacteria or other cells; usually a complex mixture of organic and inorganic materials.
  • Cyto-
  •  Referring to cell or cell plasm.
  • Cytogenetics
  •  Study of the cell and its heredity-related components, especially chromosomes.
  • Cytoplasm
  •  Cellular material that is within the cell membrane and surrounds the nucleus.
  • Cytotoxic
  •  Able to cause cell death.
• D
  • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
  •  The molecule that carries the genetic information for most living systems. The DNA molecule consists of four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine) and a sugar-phosphate backbone, arranged in two connected strands to form a double helix. See also Complementary DNA; Double helix; Recombinant DNA.
  • Diagnostic
  •  A product used for the diagnosis of disease or medical condition. Both monoclonal antibodies and DNA probes are useful diagnostic products.
  • Differentiation
  •  The process of biochemical and structural changes by which cells become specialized in form and function.
  • Diploid
  •  A cell with two complete sets of chromosomes. Compare Haploid.
  • DNA
  •  See Deoxyribonucleic acid
  • DNA fingerprinting
  •  The use of restriction enzymes to measure the genetic variation of individuals. This technology is often used as a forensic tool to detect differences or similarities in blood and tissue samples at crime scenes.
  • DNA probe
  •  A small piece of nucleic acid that has been labeled with a radioactive isotope, dye or enzyme and is used to locate a particular nucleotide sequence or gene on a DNA molecule.
  • DNA sequence
  •  The order of nucleotide bases in the DNA molecule.
  • Double helix
  •  A term often used to describe the configuration of the DNA molecule. The helix consists of two spiraling strands of nucleotides (a sugar, phosphate and base) joined crosswise by specific paring of the bases. See also Deoxyribonucleic acid; Base; Base pair.
  • Drug delivery
  •  The process by which a formulated drug is administered to the patient. Traditional routes have been oral or intravenous perfusion. New methods deliver through the skin with a transdermal patch or across the nasal membrane with an aerosol spray.
• E
  • Electrophoresis
  •  A technique for separating different types of molecules based on their patterns of movement in an electrical field.
  • Electroporation
  •  The creation of reversible small holes in a cell wall or membrane through which foreign DNA can pass. This DNA can then integrate into the cell?s genome.
  • Enzyme
  •  A protein catalyst that facilitates specific chemical or metabolic reactions necessary for cell growth and reproduction.
  • Erythropoietin (EPO)
  •  A protein that boosts production of red blood cells. It is clinically useful in treating certain types of anemia.
  • Escherichia coli (E.coli)
  •  A bacterium that inhabits the intestinal tract of most vertebrates. Much of the work using recombinant DNA techniques has been carried out with this organism because it has beengenetically well characterized.
  • Eukaryote
  •  A cell or organism containing a true nucleus, with a well-defined membrane surrounding the nucleus. All organisms except bacteria, viruses and cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae) are eukaryotic. Compare Prokaryote.
  • Exon
  •  In eukaryotic cells, that part of the gene that is transcribed into messenger RNA and encodes a protein. See also Intron; Splicing.
  • Expression
  •  In genetics, manifestation of a characteristic that is specified by a gene. With hereditary disease, for example, a person can carry the gene for the disease but not actually have the disease. In this case, the gene is present but not expressed. In industrial biotechnology, the term is often used to mean the production of a protein by a gene that has been inserted into a new host organism.
• F
  • Factor VIII
  •  A large, complex protein that aids in blood clotting and is used to treat hemophilia. See also Antihemophilic factors.
  • Feedstock
  •  The raw material used for chemical or biological processes.
  • Fermentation
  •  The process of growing microorganisms for the production of various chemical or pharmaceutical compounds. Microbes are normally incubated under specific conditions in the presence of nutrients in large tanks called fermentors.
  • Fusion
  •  Joining of the membrane of two cells, thus creating a daughter cell that contains some of the properties from each parent cell. Used in making hybridomas.
• G
  • Gene
  •  A segment of chromosome. Some genes direct the synthesis of proteins, while others have regulatory functions. See also Operator gene; Structural gene; Suppressor gene.
  • Gene machine
  •  A computerized device for synthesizing genes by combing nucleotides (bases) in the proper order.
  • Gene mapping
  •  Determination of the relative locations of genes on a chromosome.
  • Gene sequencing
  •  Determination of the sequence of nucleotide bases in a strand of DNA. See Sequencing.
  • Gene therapy
  •  The replacement of a defective gene in an organism suffering from a genetic disease. Recombinant DNA techniques are used to isolate the functioning gene and insert it into cells.Over 300 single-gene genetic disorders have been identified in humans. A significant percentage of these may be amenable to gene therapy.
  • Genetic code
  •  The mechanism by which genetic information is stored in living organisms. The code uses sets of three nucleotide bases (codons) to make the amino acids that, in turn, constitute proteins.
  • Genetic modification
  •  A technology used to alter the genetic material of living modification cells in order to make them capable of producing new substances or performing new functions.
  • Genetic predisposition
  •  Susceptibility to disease that is related to a genetic predisposition mutation, which may or may not result in actual development of the disease.
  • Genetic screening
  •  The use of a specific biological test to screen for inherited diseases or medical conditions. Testing can be conducted prenatally to check for metabolic defects and congenital disorders in the developing fetus as well as postnatally to screen for carriers of heritable diseases.
  • Genetic testing
  •  The analysis of an individual?s genetic material. Genetic testing can be used to gather information on an individual?s genetic predisposition to a particular health condition, or to confirm a diagnosis of genetic disease.
  • Genome
  •  The total hereditary material of a cell, comprising the entire chromosomal set found in each nucleus of a given species.
  • Genomics
  •  The study of genes and their function. Recent advances in genomics are bringing about a revolution in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of disease, including the complexinterplay of genetic and environmental factors. Genomics is also stimulating the discovery of breakthrough healthcare products by revealing thousands of new biological targets for the development of drugs and by giving scientists innovative ways to design new drugs, vaccines and DNA diagnostics. Genomic-based therapeutics may include ?traditional? small hemical drugs, protein drugs and gene therapy.
  • Genotype
  •  Genetic makeup of an individual or group. Compare Phenotype.
  • Germ cell
  •  Reproductive cell (sperm or egg). Also called gamete or sex cell.
  • Germplasm
  •  The total genetic variability, represented by germ cells or seeds, available to a particular population of organisms.
  • Glycoprotein
  •  A protein conjugated with a carbohydrate group.
  • Granulocyte
  •  One of three types of white blood cells. Granulocytes digest bacteria and other parasites. Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GMCSF) A natural hormone that stimulates white blood cell production, particularly that of granulocytes and monocytes (the precursors of macrophages).
  • Growth hormone
  •  Human growth hormone is used clinically to treat dwarfism. Various animal growthhormones can be used to improve milk production as well as produce a leaner variety of meat.
• H
  • Haploid
  •  A cell with half the usual number of chromosomes, or only one chromosome set. Sex cells are haploid. Compare Diploid.
  • Hapten
  •  The portion of an antigen that determines its immunological specificity. When coupled to a large protein, a hapten stimulates the formation of antibodies to the two-molecule complex. Also called antigenic determinant.
  • Hemagglutination
  •  Clumping (agglutination) of red blood cells.
  • Heredity
  •  Transfer of genetic information from parent cells to progeny.
  • Histocompatibility
  •  Immunologic similarity of tissues such that grafting can be done without tissue rejection. Histocompatibility antigen An antigen that causes the rejection of grafted material from an animal different in genotype from the host animal
  • Homeobox
  •  Family of genes that regulate activities of other genes (turns genes on and off ).
  • Homologous
  •  Corresponding or alike in structure, position or origin.
  • Hormone
  •  A chemical or protein that acts as a messenger or stimulatory signal, relaying instructions to stop or start certain physiological activities. Hormones are synthesized in one type of celland then released to direct the function of other cell types.
  • Host
  •  A cell or organism used for growth of a virus, plasmid or other form of foreign DNA, or for the production of cloned substances.
  • Host-vector system
  •  Combination of DNA-receiving cells (host) and DNA-transporting substance (vector) used for introducing foreign DNA into a cell. Human Genome Project An international research effort aimed at discovering the full sequence of bases in the human genome. Led in the United States by the National Institutes of Health and the Department of Energy.
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
  •  The virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
  • Hybridization
  •  Production of offspring, or hybrids, from genetically dissimilar parents. The process can be used to produce hybrid plants (by crossbreeding two different varieties) or hybridomas (hybrid cells formed by fusing two unlike cells, used in producing monoclonal antibodies). The term is also used to refer to the binding of complementary strands of DNA or RNA.
  • Hybridoma
  •  The cell produced by fusing two cells of different origin. In monoclonal antibody technology, hybridomas are formed by fusing an immortal cell (one that divides continuously) and an antibody-producing cell. See also Monoclonal antibody; Myeloma.
• I
  • Immune response
  •  The response of the immune system to challenge by a foreign antigen.
  • Immune serum
  •  Blood serum containing antibodies.
  • Immune system
  •  The combination of cells, biological substances (such as antibodies) and cellular activities that work together to provide resistance to disease.
  • Immunity
  •  Nonsusceptibility to a disease or to the toxic effects of antigenic material. See also Active immunity; Cell-mediated immunity; Natural active immunity; Natural passive immunity;Passive immunity.
  • Immunoassay
  •  Technique for identifying substances based on the use of antibodies.
  • Immunodiagnostics
  •  The use of specific antibodies to measure a substance. This tool is useful in diagnosing infectious diseases and the presence of foreign substances in a variety of human and animal fluids (blood, urine, etc.). It is currently being investigated as a way of locating tumor cells in the body.
  • Immunofluorescence
  •  Technique for identifying antigenic material that uses an antibody labeled with fluorescent material. Specific binding of the antibody and antigen can be seen under a microscope by applying ultraviolet light rays and noting the visible light that is produced.
  • Immunogen
  •  Any substance that can elicit an immune response.
  • Immunoglobulin
  •  General name for proteins that function as antibodies. These proteins differ somewhat in structure and are grouped into five categories on the basis of these differences; immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgM, IgA, IgE and IgD.
  • Immunology
  •  Study of all phenomena related to the body?s response to antigenic challenge (i.e., immunity, sensitivity and allergy).
  • Immunomodulators
  •  A diverse class of proteins that boost the immune system. Many are cell growth factors that accelerate the production of specific cells that are important in mounting an immuneresponse in the body. These proteins are being investigated for use in possible cures for cancer.
  • Immunotoxins
  •  Specific monoclonal antibodies that have a protein toxin molecule attached. The monoclonal antibody is targeted against a tumor cell, and the toxin is designed to kill that cell when the antibody binds to it.
  • In situ
  •  In its original or natural place or position.
  • In vitro
  •  Literally, ?in glass.? Performed in a test tube or other laboratory apparatus.
  • In vivo
  •  In the living organism.
  • Inducer
  •  A molecule or substance that increases the rate of enzyme synthesis, usually by blocking the action of the corresponding repressor.
  • Interferon
  •  A class of lymphokine proteins important in the immune response. There are three major types of interferon: alpha (leukocyte), beta (fibroblast) and gamma (immune). Interferons inhibit viral infections and may have anticancer properties
  • Interleukin
  •  A type of lymphokine that regulates the growth and development of white blood cells. Twelve interleukins (IL-1 through IL-12) have been identified to date.
  • Intron
  •  In eukaryotic cells, a sequence of DNA that is contained in the gene but does not encode for protein. The presence of introns ?splits? the coding region of the gene into segments called exons. See also Exon; Splicing.
  • Investigational New Drug Application (IND)
  •  An application to begin studies of a new drug or biologic on humans. The IND gives the plan for the study and contains formulation, manufacturing and animal test result information.
  • Isoenzyme
  •  One of the several forms that a given enzyme can take. The forms may differ in certain physical properties, but function similarly as biocatalysts.
  • Isogenic
  •  Of the same genotype.
• K
  • Kidney plasminogen activator
  •  A precursor to the enzyme urokinase that has blood-clotting properties.
• L
  • Leukocyte
  •  A colorless cell in the blood, lymph and tissues that is an important component of the body?s immune system. Also called white blood cells.
  • Library
  •  A set of cloned DNA fragments.
  • Ligase
  •  An enzyme used to join DNA or RNA segments together. They are called DNA ligase or RNA ligase, respectively.
  • Linkage
  •  The tendency for certain genes to be inherited together due to their physical proximity on the chromosome.
  • Linker
  •  A fragment of DNA with a restriction site that can be used to join DNA strands.
  • Lipoproteins
  •  A class of serum proteins that transport lipids and cholesterol in the blood stream. Abnormalities in lipoprotein metabolism have been implicated in certain heart diseases.
  • Lymphocyte
  •  A type of leukocyte found in lymphatic tissue in the blood, lymph nodes and organs. Lymphocytes are continuously made in the bone marrow and mature into antibody-forming cells. See also B lymphocytes; T lymphocytes.
  • Lymphokine
  •  A class of soluble proteins produced by white blood cells that play a role, as yet not fully understood, in the immune response. See also Interferon; Interleukin.
  • Lymphoma
  •  Form of cancer that affects the lymph tissue.
• M
  • Macrophage
  •  A type of white blood cell produced in blood vessels and loose connective tissues that can ingest dead tissues and cells and is involved in producing interleukin 1. When exposed to the lymphokine macrophage-activating factor, macrophages also kill tumor cells. See also Phagocyte.
  • Macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF)
  •  A natural hormone that stimulates the production of white blood cells, particularly monocytes (the precursors of macrophages).
  • Medium
  •  A substance containing nutrients needed for cell growth.
  • Meiosis
  •  Process of cell reproduction whereby the daughter cells have half the chromosome number of the parent cells. Sex cells are formed by meiosis. Compare Mitosis.
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA)
  •  Nucleic acid that carries instructions to a ribosome for the synthesis of a particular protein.
  • Metabolism
  •  All biochemical activities carried out by an organism to maintain life.
  • Microbial herbicides and pesticides
  •  Microorganisms that are toxic to specific plants or insects. Because of their narrow host range and limited toxicity, these microorganisms may be preferable to their chemical counterparts for certain pest control applications.
  • Microbiology
  •  Study of living organisms that can be seen only under a microscope.
  • Microinjection
  •  The injection of DNA using a very fine needle into a cell.
  • Microorganism
  •  Any organism that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. Also called microbe.
  • Mitosis
  •  Process of cell reproduction whereby the daughter cells are identical in chromosome number to the parent cells. Compare Meiosis.
  • Molecular genetics
  •  Study of how genes function to control cellular activities.
  • Monoclonal antibody (MAb)
  •  Highly specific, purified antibody that is derived from only one clone of cells and recognizes only one antigen. See also Hybridoma; Myeloma.
  • Monocytes
  •  One of three types of white blood cells. Monocytes are precursors to macrophages.
  • Multigenic
  •  Of hereditary characteristics, one that is specified by several genes.
  • Mutagen
  •  A substance that induces mutations.
  • Mutant
  •  A cell that manifests new characteristics due to a change in its DNA.
  • Mutation
  •  A change in the genetic material of a cell.
  • Myeloma
  •  A type of tumor cell that is used in monoclonal antibody technology to form hybridomas.
• N
  • Natural active immunity
  •  Immunity that is established after the occurrence of a disease.
  • Natural killer cell (NK)
  •  A type of leukocyte that attacks cancerous or virus-infected cells without previous exposure to the antigen. NK cell activity is stimulated by interferon.
  • Natural passive immunity
  •  Immunity conferred by the mother on the fetus or newborn.
  • Nitrogen fixation
  •  A biological process (usually associated with plants) whereby certain bacteria convert nitrogen in the air to ammonia, thus forming a nutrient essential for growth.
  • Nuclease
  •  An enzyme that, by cleaving chemical bonds, breaks down nucleic acids into their constituent nucleotides.
  • Nucleic acids
  •  Large molecules, generally found in the cell?s nucleus and/or cytoplasm, that are made up of nucleotide bases. The two kinds of nucleic acid are DNA and RNA.
  • Nucleotide base
  •  See Base.
  • Nucleotides
  •  The building blocks of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide is composed of sugar, phosphate and one of four nitrogen bases. The sequence of the bases within the nucleic acid determines what proteins are made.
  • Nucleus
  •  The structure within eukaryotic cells that contains chromosomal DNA.
• O
  • Oligonucleotide
  •  A polymer consisting of a small number (about two to ten) of nucleotides.
  • Oncogene
  •  Gene thought to be capable of producing cancer.
  • Oncogenic
  •  Cancer causing
  • Oncology
  •  Study of tumors.
  • Operator gene
  •  A region of the chromosome, adjacent to the operon, where a repressor protein binds to prevent transcription of the operon.
  • Operon
  •  Sequence of genes responsible for synthesizing the enzymes needed for biosynthesis of a molecule. An operon is controlled by an operator gene and a repressor gene.
  • Organic compound
  •  A compound containing carbon.
• P
  • Passive immunity
  •  Immunity acquired from receiving preformed antibodies.
  • Pathogen
  •  Disease-causing organism.
  • Peptide
  •  Two or more amino acids joined by a linkage called a peptide bond.
  • Phagocyte
  •  A type of white blood cell that can ingest invading microorganisms and other foreign material. See also Macrophage.
  • Phenotype
  •  Observable characteristics resulting from interaction between an organism?s genetic makeup and the environment. Compare Genotype.
  • Photosynthesis
  •  Conversion by plants of light energy into chemical energy, which is then used to support the plants? biological processes.
  • Plasma
  •  The fluid (noncellular) fraction of blood.
  • Plasmapheresis
  •  A technique used to separate useful factors from blood.
  • Plasmid
  •  A small circular form of DNA that carries certain genes and is capable of replicating independently in a host cell.
  • Pluripotent cells
  •  Having the capacity to become any kind of cell or tissue in the body. Stem cells are pluripotent.
  • Polyclonal
  •  Derived from different types of cells.
  • Polymer
  •  A long molecule of repeated subunits.
  • Polymerase
  •  General term for enzymes that carry out the synthesis of nucleic acids.
  • Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
  •  A technique to amplify a target DNA sequence of nucleotides by several hundred thousandfold.
  • Polypeptide
  •  Long chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
  • Preclinical studies
  •  Studies that test a drug on animals and in other nonhuman test systems. Safety information from such studies is used to support an investigational new drug application (IND).
  • Prokaryote
  •  An organism (e.g., bacterium, virus, cyanobacterium) whose DNA is not enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Compare Eukaryote.
  • Promoter
  •  A DNA sequence that is located in front of a gene and controls gene expression. Promoters are required for binding of RNA polymerase to initiate transcription.
  • Prophage
  •  Phage nucleic acid that is incorporated into the host?s chromosome but does not cause cell lysis.
  • Protein
  •  A molecule composed of amino acids. There are many types of proteins, all carrying out a number of different functions essential for cell growth.
  • Protein A
  •  A protein produced by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus that specifically binds antibodies. It is useful in the purification of monoclonal antibodies.
  • Proteomics
  •  Each cell produces thousands of proteins, each with a specific function. This collection of proteins in a cell is known as the proteome, and, unlike the genome, which is constant irrespective of cell type, the proteome varies from one cell type to the next. The science of proteomics attempts to identify the protein profile of each cell type, assess protein differences between healthy and diseased cells, and uncover not only a protein?s specific function but also how it interacts with other proteins.
  • Protoplast
  •  The cellular material that remains after the cell wall has been removed.
  • Pure culture
  •  In vitro growth of only one type of microorganism.
• R
  • Radioimmunoassay
  •  A technique for quantifying a substance by measuring the reactivity of radioactively labeled forms of the substance with antibodies.
  • Reagent
  •  Substance used in a chemical reaction.
  • Recombinant DNA (Rdna
  •  The DNA formed by combining segments of DNA from different types of organisms.
  • Regeneration
  •  Laboratory technique for forming a new plant from a clump of plant cells.
  • Regulatory gene
  •  A gene that acts to control the protein-synthesizing activity of other genes.
  • Replication
  •  Reproduction or duplication, as of an exact copy of a strand of DNA.
  • Replicon
  •  A segment of DNA (e.g., chromosome or plasmid) that can replicate independently.
  • Repressor
  •  A protein that binds to an operator adjacent to a structural gene, inhibiting transcription of that gene.
  • Restriction enzyme
  •  An enzyme that breaks DNA in highly specific locations, creating gaps into which new genes can be inserted.
  • Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
  •  The variation in the length of DNA fragments produced by a restriction endonuclease that cuts at a polymorphic locus. This is a key tool in DNA fingerprinting and is based on the presence of different alleles in an individual. RFLP mapping is also used in plant breeding to see if a key trait such as disease resistance is inherited.
  • Reticuloendothelial system
  •  The system of macrophages, which serves as an important defense system against disease.
  • Retrovirus
  •  A virus that contains the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This enzyme converts the viral RNA into DNA, which can combine with the DNA of the host cell and produce more viral particles.
  • Rheology
  •  Study of the flow of matter such as fermentation liquids.
  • Rhizobium
  •  A class of microorganisms that converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can utilize for growth. Species of this microorganism grow symbiotically on the roots of certain legumes, such as peas, beans and alfalfa.
  • RIA (Radioimmunoassay)
  •  A diagnostic test using antibodies to detect trace amounts of substances. Such tests are useful in biomedical research to study how drugs interact with their receptors.
  • Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
  •  A molecule similar to DNA that delivers DNA?s genetic message to the cytoplasm of a cell where proteins are made.
  • Ribosome
  •  A cellular component, containing protein and RNA, that is involved in protein synthesis.
• S
  • Scale-up
  •  Transition from small-scale production to production of large industrial quantities.
  • Selective medium
  •  Nutrient material constituted such that it will support the growth of specific organisms while inhibiting the growth of others.
  • Sepsis
  •  The presence in the blood or other tissues of pathogenic microorganisms or their toxins; the condition associated with such presence.
  • Sequencing
  •  Decoding a strand of DNA or gene into the specific order of its nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. This analysis can be done manually or with automated equipment. Sequencing a gene can require analyzing an average of 40,000 nucleotides.
  • Serology
  •  Study of blood serum and reactions between the antibodies and antigens therein.
  • Single-cell protein
  •  Cells or protein extracts from microorganisms, grown in large quantities for use as protein supplements.
  • Somatic cells
  •  Cells other than sex or germ cells. Somatic cell gene therapy Somatic cell gene therapy involves the insertion of genes into cells for therapeutic purposes; for example, to induce the treated cells to produce a protein that the body is missing. It does not affect genetic makeup of a patient?s offspring and generally does not change all, or even most, cellsin the recipient. Somatic cell gene therapy is only one way of applying the science of genomics to improve health care.
  • Splicing
  •  The removal of introns and joining of exons to form a continuous coding sequence in RNA.
  • Structural gene
  •  A gene that codes for a protein, such as an enzyme.
  • Substrate
  •  Material acted on by an enzyme.
  • Suicide gene
  •  A gene that codes for an antibiotic that can kill the host bacterial cell. It is genetically modified into the bacterium along with a molecular switch that is controlled by some nutrient in the environment. When the nutrient disappears, the suicide gene is switched on and the bacterium dies.
  • Suppressor gene
  •  A gene that can reverse the effect of a mutation in other genes
• T
  • T lymphocytes (T-cells)
  •  White blood cells that are produced in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus. They are important in the body?s defense against certain bacteria and fungi, help B lymphocytes make antibodies and help in the recognition and rejection of foreign tissues. T lymphocytes may also be important in the body?s defense against cancers.
  • Technology transfer
  •  The process of transferring discoveries made by basic research institutions, such as universities and government laboratories, to the commercial sector for development into useful products and services
  • Template
  •  A molecule that serves as the pattern for synthesizing another molecule.
  • Therapeutics
  •  Compounds that are used to treat specific diseases or medical conditions.
  • Thymus
  •  A lymphoid organ in the lower neck, the proper functioning of which in early life is necessary for development of the immune system.
  • Tissue culture
  •  In vitro growth in nutrient medium of cells isolated from tissue.
  • Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)
  •  A protein produced in small amounts in the body that aids in dissolving blood clots.
  • Toxin
  •  A poisonous substance produced by certain microorganisms or plants.
  • Transcription
  •  Synthesis of messenger (or any other) RNA on a DNA template.
  • Transduction
  •  Transfer of genetic material from one cell to another by means of a virus or phage vector.
  • Transfection
  •  Infection of a cell with nucleic acid from a virus, resulting in replication of the complete virus.
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA)
  •  RNA molecules that carry amino acids to sites on ribosomes where proteins are synthesized.
  • Transformation
  •  Change in the genetic structure of an organism by the incorporation of foreign DNA.
  • Transgenic organism
  •  An organism formed by the insertion of foreign genetic material into the germ line cells of organisms. Recombinant DNA techniques are commonly used to produce transgenic organisms.
  • Translation
  •  Process by which the information on a messenger RNA molecule is used to direct the synthesis of a protein.
  • Transposon
  •  A segment of DNA that can move around and be inserted at several sites in bacterial DNA or in a phage, thus alerting the host?s DNA.
  • tRNA
  •  Transfer RNA.
  • Tumor necrosis factors (TNF)
  •  Rare proteins of the immune system that appear to destroy some types of tumor cells without affecting healthy cells.
• V
  • Vaccine
  •  A preparation that contains an antigen consisting of whole disease-causing organisms (killed or weakened), or parts of such organisms, and is used to confer immunity against the disease that the organisms cause. Vaccine preparations can be natural, synthetic or derived by recombinant DNA technology.
  • Vector
  •  The agent (e.g., plasmid or virus) used to carry new DNA into a cell.
  • Virion
  •  An elementary viral particle consisting of genetic material and a protein covering.
  • Virology
  •  Study of viruses.
  • Virulence
  •  Ability to infect or cause disease.
  • Virus
  •  A submicroscopic organism that contains genetic information but cannot reproduce itself. To replicate, it must invade another cell and use parts of that cell?s reproductive machinery.
• W
  • White blood cells
  •  Leukocytes.
  • Wild type
  •  The form of an organism that occurs most frequently in nature.
• X
  • Xenobiotics
  •  Synthetic chemicals believed to be resistant to environmental degradation. A branch of biotechnology called bioremediation is seeking to develop biological methods to degrade such compounds.
  • Xenotransplantation
  •  The process of transplanting organs, cells or tissues from animals into humans. Biotechnology is enabling scientists to genetically modify donor animals so that organs or other materials will not be rejected by the human immune system. This may expand the number of available organs for transplantation.